Powell Chapter 9
Coding is the conversion of data or responses to numerical format so that they can be tabulated or tallied. This expedites analysis, especially if computers are to be used.
Descriptive statistics are statistics used to explain or characterize how frequently data of certain values appears, develop pictorial representations, characterize what is "typical" in a set of data, and show the extent of data variation. Inferential statistics, on the other hand, help researchers to estimate future circumstances or to generalize from random samples.
Wildemuth Chapters 29-37
Ch. 29
Content analysis is a method of doing research that involves analyzing the information contained in fixed media such as paper, digital media, video, audio, film, and more. This is a systematic form of analysis, though, that follows the scientific method.
Manifest content is content that is clearly (unambiguously) held in the message or media. Latent content cannot be observed in the media or message, but is instead conceptual in nature.
Ch. 30
Conventional qualitative content analysis involves directly and inductively derived coding categories that are taken from the raw data in a study.
Directed content analysis involves beginning coding with a theory or with relevant research findings. It is most often used to validate or extend a theory or conceptual framework that is already in existence.
Summative content analysis starts with word counting or counting of manifest content, but then analyzes latent meaning or themes in the same way. This approach is often used to explore word usage inductively.
Ch. 31
In discourse analysis, the term coherence is used to mean that the outcome(s) of your analysis should make the universe of discourse you have examined more clear and more focused.
The fruitfulness of discourse analysis findings is a measure indicating the amount of insight those findings provide that could aid in the analysis of new discourse.
Ch. 32
Analytic induction is a form of inductive reasoning that is used to evaluate and/or analyze data that is qualitative in nature. It is a method for formally elucidating a theory or hypothesis straight from the data in a study.
One of analytic induction's drawbacks is that it has difficulty in accounting for continuous variables. It works much better with binary or other well-compartmentalized variables.
Ch. 33
Measuring central tendency involves identifying the typical value or values that embody the overall distribution of values for a given variable. This can be expressed as the mean, median, or mode.
Dispersion is the measure of how (and how far) variables spread out from the central tendency. The measure used for expressing variables' dispersion is informed by the measure chosen for expressing the central tendency.
Ch. 34
The frequency distribution of data is a representation of how many times a particluar category of a variable occurs.
By putting the frequency distribution of two variables in a table with the categories of one variable displayed as rows and the categories of the other variable displayed as columns, the relationship between the two variables can be observed and described. This is called a cross-tabulation table (also a two-way table, contingency table, or bivariate table).
Ch. 35
Sequential event analysis is the analysis of individual steps of a process, or events, over time. It can be based on the transitions between events or states, or on matching optimal algorithms (which involves comparing complete sequences of events).
It is important to remember that the examination of state transitions tells a researcher little about the sequence of events itself, while optimal matching looks more at the sequences themselves than at individual events.
Ch. 36
Correlation is an analysis method that looks at two variables and examines the relationship between them. It can be positive (an increase in one causes an increase in the other) or negative (an increase in one causes a decrease in the other); these are called directions of the relationship.
Strength of correlation ranges from 0 (no correlation) to 1 (perfect correlation), and it is a measure of the likelihood or influence that one variable's change has on another.
Ch. 37
In research studies, the researcher wants to explore effects that arise out of certain circumstances. These can be due to actual effect (true causation) or from chance (which may appear to be true causation, but is not). Chance effects are also called sampling error.
If data have equal variances and normal distributions, a t test can be used to calculate the probability that variable differences are caused by chance. It is calculated by dividing the difference between two means by the standard error (which comes from dividing the standard deviation of a sample by the square root of the size of the sample).
References
Connaway, L. & Powell, R. (2010). Basic research methods for librarians. 5th ed. Santa
Barbara, CA: Libraries Unlimited.
Wildemuth, B. (2009). Applications of social research methods to questions in information and library science. Westport, CT: ABC-CLIO, Incorporated.
Tuesday, October 18, 2011
Tuesday, October 11, 2011
Data Collection Techniques Readings
Powell Chapter 5
A summated scale uses a set of statements or items for rating responses, but does not structure or distribute the statements along any continuum. Likert scales are a well-known and frequently-used type of summated scale.
A semantic differential scale provides pairs of antonyms and synonyms along a rating scale that appears to follow a continuum. These are familiar to many people, and appear frequently in survey research.
Wildemuth Chapters 18-28
Ch. 18
Transaction log anaylisis is a research method in which records of transactions or occurrences stored in a computer device are examined for patterns of usage and feedback data. The computer system in question stores precise data about how users utilize its systems, how users move through established processes, and what resources users actually use. This data is used to help make decisions regarding how resources might be allocated or how some processes might be improved.
Data cleansing and preparation involves discarding corrupt and/or extraneous data and processing of raw data files to build secondary data sets.
Ch. 19
Think-aloud protocols (also called verbal reports or verbal protocols) are research methods in which subjects follow given directions but must speak what they are thinking aloud as they perform the tasks necessary to complete the directions given. They allow researchers to observe reactions and feelings and the sequence of subjects' thought processes.
Concurrent protocols ask subjects to speak while they are performing tasks, while retrospective protocols allow subjects to detail their thoughts verbally after the fact.
Ch. 20
Direct observation is the observation of subjects in situ rather than by eliciting details through "indirect" methods such as interviews or questionnaires.
Participant observation involves the observer playing some role as a participant in the setting that is being observed. Non-participant observation occurs when the observer takes no part in the setting.
Ch. 21
Participant observation can take place when the observer engages in passive participation, participant-as-observer, or limited observation; these terms indicate that the observer is merely present in the observation setting, but takes a very limited or passive role in the setting itself.
On the other hand, complete participation, full membership, and active participation involve the researcher taking a much more active role in the observation setting.
Note: the level of participation chosen by the observer should be appropriate to the setting itself and to the information needs or research needs of the researcher.
Ch. 22
Research diaries are self-reports made by participants in a research study that occur repeatedly over time. Subject to a wide range of structure types, the diary is a special form of data collection distinct from questionnaires, interviews, and observation in that the subject or participant self-reports.
Diaries are often combined with other research methods, and one method often employed by researchers is the diary-interview method. This method combines the use of interviews with the use of diaries, and can, if conservatively used, clarify diary entries. Liberally used, this method can allow much greater-depth exploration of diary entries after they are recorded.
Ch. 23
A structured interview is one with predefined questions that are asked of all participants or subjects in the same order. An unstructured interview is more flexible and, while it may rely on a guide with suggested questions, allows for the interviewer to modify the question set and question order to gather extra information when such an opportunity presents itself. In unstructured interviews, questions asked may often depend on context or on the answers given by participants to earlier questions.
There are three types of questions (especially crucial to unstructured interviews): 1) descriptive questions, which elicit descriptions from subjects about their activities, thoughts, etc.; 2) structural questions, which focus on how subjects organize their thoughts and knowledge; and 3) contrast questions, which ask subjects to make comparisons and discuss the meanings of the situations in which they are placed.
Ch. 24
A semistructured interview is one that allows for some movement of question order and some flexibility with questions asked of subjects, but also has essential questions which must be asked because they are the foci of the research at hand. Other questions might be added (which can be classified as "extra", "throw-away", or "probing"). Semistructured interviews vary somewhat, but fall toward the center of a continuum between completely structured interviews and completely unstructured ones.
Problematic questions should be avoided, and include questions that elicit inappropriate emotional responses (affectively worded questions), questions that incorporate two issues in a single question (double-barreled questions), and questions that are too complex or ambiguous in nature (complex questions).
Ch. 25
A focus group is a group that is put together by research with the specific task of discussing and commenting on a research topic or subject based on their personal experience.
When creating a focus group, the control characteristics are the characteristics of the people that the researcher would like to include in the focus group. These most often involve figuring out the characteristics of who might be most useful or insightful during participation in a given study.
Ch. 26
A survey instrument is the item or set of items that is used to generate responses from participants in a research survey. Examples would include interview questions, questionnaires, and statements that might elicit reactions that could be recorded and later analyzed.
Pretesting is the process of survey instrument review by experts or members of the target group. Pilot testing is the administration of a survey to a sample of the target group in a realistic way. Both of these processes assist in evaluating the survey instrument itself.
Ch. 27
Cognitive variables are those invisible or otherwise [directly] unobservable variables that revolve around a subject's cognitive style or method of thinking while participating in a study.
Affective variables are similarly unobservable, but involve the feelings, attitudes, etc. that occur at different stages of the information-seeking process.
Both of these types of variables are expressed by researchers in the form of constructs, or defined and operationalized sets of measurement characteristics that can be expressed concisely.
Ch. 28
A scale is a logical structure that expresses or embodies the relationships between numbers and the presence of whatever construct might be in use. Put another way, once a construct is developed, results of research involving the construct produce numbers which are measured and compared by a scale.
A measurement's reliability is in its consistency. That is, scores or measurements should not vary unreasonably as a result of factors irrelevant to the research at hand. Consistency without such variation is expressed as reliability.
References
Connaway, L. & Powell, R. (2010). Basic research methods for librarians. 5th ed. Santa
Barbara, CA: Libraries Unlimited.
Wildemuth, B. (2009). Applications of social research methods to questions in information and library science. Westport, CT: ABC-CLIO, Incorporated.
A summated scale uses a set of statements or items for rating responses, but does not structure or distribute the statements along any continuum. Likert scales are a well-known and frequently-used type of summated scale.
A semantic differential scale provides pairs of antonyms and synonyms along a rating scale that appears to follow a continuum. These are familiar to many people, and appear frequently in survey research.
Wildemuth Chapters 18-28
Ch. 18
Transaction log anaylisis is a research method in which records of transactions or occurrences stored in a computer device are examined for patterns of usage and feedback data. The computer system in question stores precise data about how users utilize its systems, how users move through established processes, and what resources users actually use. This data is used to help make decisions regarding how resources might be allocated or how some processes might be improved.
Data cleansing and preparation involves discarding corrupt and/or extraneous data and processing of raw data files to build secondary data sets.
Ch. 19
Think-aloud protocols (also called verbal reports or verbal protocols) are research methods in which subjects follow given directions but must speak what they are thinking aloud as they perform the tasks necessary to complete the directions given. They allow researchers to observe reactions and feelings and the sequence of subjects' thought processes.
Concurrent protocols ask subjects to speak while they are performing tasks, while retrospective protocols allow subjects to detail their thoughts verbally after the fact.
Ch. 20
Direct observation is the observation of subjects in situ rather than by eliciting details through "indirect" methods such as interviews or questionnaires.
Participant observation involves the observer playing some role as a participant in the setting that is being observed. Non-participant observation occurs when the observer takes no part in the setting.
Ch. 21
Participant observation can take place when the observer engages in passive participation, participant-as-observer, or limited observation; these terms indicate that the observer is merely present in the observation setting, but takes a very limited or passive role in the setting itself.
On the other hand, complete participation, full membership, and active participation involve the researcher taking a much more active role in the observation setting.
Note: the level of participation chosen by the observer should be appropriate to the setting itself and to the information needs or research needs of the researcher.
Ch. 22
Research diaries are self-reports made by participants in a research study that occur repeatedly over time. Subject to a wide range of structure types, the diary is a special form of data collection distinct from questionnaires, interviews, and observation in that the subject or participant self-reports.
Diaries are often combined with other research methods, and one method often employed by researchers is the diary-interview method. This method combines the use of interviews with the use of diaries, and can, if conservatively used, clarify diary entries. Liberally used, this method can allow much greater-depth exploration of diary entries after they are recorded.
Ch. 23
A structured interview is one with predefined questions that are asked of all participants or subjects in the same order. An unstructured interview is more flexible and, while it may rely on a guide with suggested questions, allows for the interviewer to modify the question set and question order to gather extra information when such an opportunity presents itself. In unstructured interviews, questions asked may often depend on context or on the answers given by participants to earlier questions.
There are three types of questions (especially crucial to unstructured interviews): 1) descriptive questions, which elicit descriptions from subjects about their activities, thoughts, etc.; 2) structural questions, which focus on how subjects organize their thoughts and knowledge; and 3) contrast questions, which ask subjects to make comparisons and discuss the meanings of the situations in which they are placed.
Ch. 24
A semistructured interview is one that allows for some movement of question order and some flexibility with questions asked of subjects, but also has essential questions which must be asked because they are the foci of the research at hand. Other questions might be added (which can be classified as "extra", "throw-away", or "probing"). Semistructured interviews vary somewhat, but fall toward the center of a continuum between completely structured interviews and completely unstructured ones.
Problematic questions should be avoided, and include questions that elicit inappropriate emotional responses (affectively worded questions), questions that incorporate two issues in a single question (double-barreled questions), and questions that are too complex or ambiguous in nature (complex questions).
Ch. 25
A focus group is a group that is put together by research with the specific task of discussing and commenting on a research topic or subject based on their personal experience.
When creating a focus group, the control characteristics are the characteristics of the people that the researcher would like to include in the focus group. These most often involve figuring out the characteristics of who might be most useful or insightful during participation in a given study.
Ch. 26
A survey instrument is the item or set of items that is used to generate responses from participants in a research survey. Examples would include interview questions, questionnaires, and statements that might elicit reactions that could be recorded and later analyzed.
Pretesting is the process of survey instrument review by experts or members of the target group. Pilot testing is the administration of a survey to a sample of the target group in a realistic way. Both of these processes assist in evaluating the survey instrument itself.
Ch. 27
Cognitive variables are those invisible or otherwise [directly] unobservable variables that revolve around a subject's cognitive style or method of thinking while participating in a study.
Affective variables are similarly unobservable, but involve the feelings, attitudes, etc. that occur at different stages of the information-seeking process.
Both of these types of variables are expressed by researchers in the form of constructs, or defined and operationalized sets of measurement characteristics that can be expressed concisely.
Ch. 28
A scale is a logical structure that expresses or embodies the relationships between numbers and the presence of whatever construct might be in use. Put another way, once a construct is developed, results of research involving the construct produce numbers which are measured and compared by a scale.
A measurement's reliability is in its consistency. That is, scores or measurements should not vary unreasonably as a result of factors irrelevant to the research at hand. Consistency without such variation is expressed as reliability.
References
Connaway, L. & Powell, R. (2010). Basic research methods for librarians. 5th ed. Santa
Barbara, CA: Libraries Unlimited.
Wildemuth, B. (2009). Applications of social research methods to questions in information and library science. Westport, CT: ABC-CLIO, Incorporated.
Friday, October 7, 2011
Article Review #2
Brent Domann
October 7, 2011
Article Review # 2
This is a review of:
Taylor, S.D., Perry, R.A., Barton, J.L., & Spencer, B. (2010). A follow-up study of the factors shaping the career choices of library school students at the University of Alabama. Reference & User Services Quarterly, 50(1), 35-47.
Introduction
The purpose of this article and its underlying research is to explore the reasons given by current library and information science (LIS) students for choosing LIS careers. It follows up on a nearly-identical examination that took place in 2004 (also at the University of Alabama).
This article relates to my proposed methodology (survey research) in that it not only asks questions about motivation for choosing higher education, it speaks specifically to some of the motivating factors that I hypothesize have contributed to graduate dissatisfaction with employment prospects. As mentioned in my previous article review, I wish to explore the weight given to post-graduation employment statistics by prospective law school students. This article very closely mimics some of the questions and data analyses that I wish to utilize (for example, Figure 4 details factors affecting students’ decisions to enter an MLIS program including “compensation” and “prestige”) (Taylor, Perry, Barton, & Spencer, 2010, p. 41).
Below are examinations of this article based on nine considerations given in Chapter 13 of Fred Pyrczak’s Evaluating research in academic journals: A practical guide to realistic Evaluation (2008).
Problem Statement
This research and report identify several important problems. First, despite the existence of a previous study using an almost identical questionnaire for LIS students, the researchers recognize that several changes have taken place in the field of LIS education. Among these are economic recession, continued technological change, the rise of new subfields in LIS, and a growing number of distance-learning LIS programs. Second, the researchers note that recent data indicate two-thirds of the librarian population as forty-five years in age or older, which will manifest in a growing need for librarians in the near future. Combined with a diversification of opportunities and responsibilities in the field, there is created a third problem of attracting highly-skilled LIS candidates from a wider variety of backgrounds.
In order to meet these challenges, the authors note a need to “identify and enlist outstanding new professionals” (Taylor et al., 2010, p. 36) and suggest that gathering data about what attracts students will improve the field’s chances of replenishing and growing its new generations. This study is designed to gather such data.
Literature Review
Taylor et al. do not have an extensive literature review in this article. Instead, they refer back to a study and analogous sample set from which they take their methodology (again, this is a follow-up to that 2004 study) and note that since then, no general studies have been conducted to survey American LIS students to examine and identify the factors that motivated them to attend library school or to enter the LIS profession. They do discuss some more specifically-focused studies to which their general research might apply, but this review still would not likely satisfy a reader looking for background information on the research at hand.
This is not perhaps the best of reports, then, in terms of reflectivity. However, the authors redeem themselves a bit in their discussions of several studies that have been conducted regarding specific types of librarianship and also on specific aspects of career development in LIS. The general study on which this report is based is stated to touch on many aspects of these more specific reports, and several of them are therefore detailed in a short literature review.
Method
This study was done using questionnaires that were given to current library students. The researchers noted using the same 2004 questionnaire with only “minor updates” (Taylor et al., 2010, p. 37). The original questionnaires requested basic demographic information like age, gender, and level of progress through the LIS program. It also contained questions regarding motivations for entering an LIS program, preferences for specialty tracks or specific careers, employment outlook, expectations regarding salary, and perceptions of the profession.
Five items were added to the 2004 questionnaire including questions regarding the importance of information technologies (IT) in libraries, IT proficiency prior to library school, previous careers, and education. The questionnaires were distributed to online and onsite students in the LIS program at the University of Alabama. Questionnaire results were analyzed for trends.
Caveats
There are no major methodological flaws that were unavoidable, though the researchers themselves carefully note the boundaries of their work. They make a point to state that generalizations regarding all LIS students (presumably nationwide) cannot be made from a sample only consisting of students at one university. However, they note that the goal of this study was to contribute to a knowledge base of ideas for recruitment and at least some data regarding the preferences and attitudes of LIS students. In both of these senses, the research was successful enough to produce some strong suggestions for LIS recruitment strategies and to encourage future interest in such questions.
Conclusion
This research study is very well-written and identifies a much-bemoaned problem in the LIS field: high attrition and a growing need to attract talent. Despite its somewhat-frustrating literature review (which could have at the very least summarized its predecessor to save readers the time of hunting down another paper), it does demonstrate its viability considering a changing market for librarians. Further, it improves upon and updates its predecessor study, asks pointed and revealing questions of its survey participants, and contributes meaningfully to the fields of LIS and of higher education in a very cohesive way. Additionally, the authors were not embarrassed to admit the limitations of their work and in doing so actually improved the efficacy and applicability of their results.
Especially considering the study’s self-identified implication that a larger sample set is needed, this report is very likely to inspire additional research on why LIS students choose their paths accordingly. It also gives enough on its own to allow for some implementation of evidence gained while engaging in future decision making, and so extends the boundaries of knowledge on the topic of LIS career choice motivation.
Although Reference & User Services Quarterly is more than just a pure research journal, this report is based on careful academic research and is worthy of publication, suitable for academic and theoretical use, and finely-crafted enough that I would put my own name on it. It is well-written, identifies a practical problem, and successfully collects a set of data that can contribute to pragmatic solution-building.
Bibliography
Taylor, S.D., Perry, R.A., Barton, J.L., & Spencer, B. (2010). A follow-up study of the factors shaping the career choices of library school students at the University of Alabama. Reference & User Services Quarterly, 50(1), 35-47.
Pyrczak, F. (2008). Evaluating research in academic journals: A practical guide to realistic evaluation. Glendale, CA: Pyrczak Publishing.
October 7, 2011
Article Review # 2
This is a review of:
Taylor, S.D., Perry, R.A., Barton, J.L., & Spencer, B. (2010). A follow-up study of the factors shaping the career choices of library school students at the University of Alabama. Reference & User Services Quarterly, 50(1), 35-47.
Introduction
The purpose of this article and its underlying research is to explore the reasons given by current library and information science (LIS) students for choosing LIS careers. It follows up on a nearly-identical examination that took place in 2004 (also at the University of Alabama).
This article relates to my proposed methodology (survey research) in that it not only asks questions about motivation for choosing higher education, it speaks specifically to some of the motivating factors that I hypothesize have contributed to graduate dissatisfaction with employment prospects. As mentioned in my previous article review, I wish to explore the weight given to post-graduation employment statistics by prospective law school students. This article very closely mimics some of the questions and data analyses that I wish to utilize (for example, Figure 4 details factors affecting students’ decisions to enter an MLIS program including “compensation” and “prestige”) (Taylor, Perry, Barton, & Spencer, 2010, p. 41).
Below are examinations of this article based on nine considerations given in Chapter 13 of Fred Pyrczak’s Evaluating research in academic journals: A practical guide to realistic Evaluation (2008).
Problem Statement
This research and report identify several important problems. First, despite the existence of a previous study using an almost identical questionnaire for LIS students, the researchers recognize that several changes have taken place in the field of LIS education. Among these are economic recession, continued technological change, the rise of new subfields in LIS, and a growing number of distance-learning LIS programs. Second, the researchers note that recent data indicate two-thirds of the librarian population as forty-five years in age or older, which will manifest in a growing need for librarians in the near future. Combined with a diversification of opportunities and responsibilities in the field, there is created a third problem of attracting highly-skilled LIS candidates from a wider variety of backgrounds.
In order to meet these challenges, the authors note a need to “identify and enlist outstanding new professionals” (Taylor et al., 2010, p. 36) and suggest that gathering data about what attracts students will improve the field’s chances of replenishing and growing its new generations. This study is designed to gather such data.
Literature Review
Taylor et al. do not have an extensive literature review in this article. Instead, they refer back to a study and analogous sample set from which they take their methodology (again, this is a follow-up to that 2004 study) and note that since then, no general studies have been conducted to survey American LIS students to examine and identify the factors that motivated them to attend library school or to enter the LIS profession. They do discuss some more specifically-focused studies to which their general research might apply, but this review still would not likely satisfy a reader looking for background information on the research at hand.
This is not perhaps the best of reports, then, in terms of reflectivity. However, the authors redeem themselves a bit in their discussions of several studies that have been conducted regarding specific types of librarianship and also on specific aspects of career development in LIS. The general study on which this report is based is stated to touch on many aspects of these more specific reports, and several of them are therefore detailed in a short literature review.
Method
This study was done using questionnaires that were given to current library students. The researchers noted using the same 2004 questionnaire with only “minor updates” (Taylor et al., 2010, p. 37). The original questionnaires requested basic demographic information like age, gender, and level of progress through the LIS program. It also contained questions regarding motivations for entering an LIS program, preferences for specialty tracks or specific careers, employment outlook, expectations regarding salary, and perceptions of the profession.
Five items were added to the 2004 questionnaire including questions regarding the importance of information technologies (IT) in libraries, IT proficiency prior to library school, previous careers, and education. The questionnaires were distributed to online and onsite students in the LIS program at the University of Alabama. Questionnaire results were analyzed for trends.
Caveats
There are no major methodological flaws that were unavoidable, though the researchers themselves carefully note the boundaries of their work. They make a point to state that generalizations regarding all LIS students (presumably nationwide) cannot be made from a sample only consisting of students at one university. However, they note that the goal of this study was to contribute to a knowledge base of ideas for recruitment and at least some data regarding the preferences and attitudes of LIS students. In both of these senses, the research was successful enough to produce some strong suggestions for LIS recruitment strategies and to encourage future interest in such questions.
Conclusion
This research study is very well-written and identifies a much-bemoaned problem in the LIS field: high attrition and a growing need to attract talent. Despite its somewhat-frustrating literature review (which could have at the very least summarized its predecessor to save readers the time of hunting down another paper), it does demonstrate its viability considering a changing market for librarians. Further, it improves upon and updates its predecessor study, asks pointed and revealing questions of its survey participants, and contributes meaningfully to the fields of LIS and of higher education in a very cohesive way. Additionally, the authors were not embarrassed to admit the limitations of their work and in doing so actually improved the efficacy and applicability of their results.
Especially considering the study’s self-identified implication that a larger sample set is needed, this report is very likely to inspire additional research on why LIS students choose their paths accordingly. It also gives enough on its own to allow for some implementation of evidence gained while engaging in future decision making, and so extends the boundaries of knowledge on the topic of LIS career choice motivation.
Although Reference & User Services Quarterly is more than just a pure research journal, this report is based on careful academic research and is worthy of publication, suitable for academic and theoretical use, and finely-crafted enough that I would put my own name on it. It is well-written, identifies a practical problem, and successfully collects a set of data that can contribute to pragmatic solution-building.
Bibliography
Taylor, S.D., Perry, R.A., Barton, J.L., & Spencer, B. (2010). A follow-up study of the factors shaping the career choices of library school students at the University of Alabama. Reference & User Services Quarterly, 50(1), 35-47.
Pyrczak, F. (2008). Evaluating research in academic journals: A practical guide to realistic evaluation. Glendale, CA: Pyrczak Publishing.
Thursday, October 6, 2011
Methods/Ethics/Theory Readings
Connaway & Powell Chapters 3&4
Ch. 3
Operations research involves use of the scientific method in evaluating management operations. This is done to assist in managerial decision making, and does so by helping to find and identify optimal solutions. According to Connaway & Powell (2010, p. 79), operations research can take the form of “resource allocation, sequencing, inventory, replacement, queuing theory, and competitive strategies.”
A Delphi study is a process by which a researcher identifies experts in the field in question and seeks their expertise through repeated and sequential questionnaires or evaluations. For example, a research might identify experts in a subject area when designing a college course in that field. Proposed characteristics of the course such as textbooks, exercises, breadth and depth of coverage, etc. would be submitted to the identified experts with evaluative questionnaires through which the experts could weigh in on the proposals. Suggestions from experts would be implemented in a second round and the process would be repeated. This would continue until satisfactory consensus was reached.
Ch. 4
A trend study is a survey conducted over a long period of time and is used to measure or evaluate trends, patterns, or changes in study results over that period of time.
A panel study is a survey study that collects its data from the same sample set of subjects repeatedly and in many cases over a long time period. This type of study and the trend study (above), especially in hybrid, can be considered types of longitudinal studies.
Wildemuth Chapter 6
Special theories are theories (see this post for a definition of “theory”) that apply only to very specific phenomena or a very small range of circumstances.
General theories are theories that apply to a broad range of situations or phenomena and are usually very abstract.
Just a note: middle-range theories fall in between the two extremes.
References
Connaway, L. & Powell, R. (2010). Basic research methods for librarians. 5th ed. Santa
Barbara, CA: Libraries Unlimited.
Wildemuth, B. (2009). Applications of social research methods to questions in information and library science. Westport, CT: ABC-CLIO, Incorporated.
Ch. 3
Operations research involves use of the scientific method in evaluating management operations. This is done to assist in managerial decision making, and does so by helping to find and identify optimal solutions. According to Connaway & Powell (2010, p. 79), operations research can take the form of “resource allocation, sequencing, inventory, replacement, queuing theory, and competitive strategies.”
A Delphi study is a process by which a researcher identifies experts in the field in question and seeks their expertise through repeated and sequential questionnaires or evaluations. For example, a research might identify experts in a subject area when designing a college course in that field. Proposed characteristics of the course such as textbooks, exercises, breadth and depth of coverage, etc. would be submitted to the identified experts with evaluative questionnaires through which the experts could weigh in on the proposals. Suggestions from experts would be implemented in a second round and the process would be repeated. This would continue until satisfactory consensus was reached.
Ch. 4
A trend study is a survey conducted over a long period of time and is used to measure or evaluate trends, patterns, or changes in study results over that period of time.
A panel study is a survey study that collects its data from the same sample set of subjects repeatedly and in many cases over a long time period. This type of study and the trend study (above), especially in hybrid, can be considered types of longitudinal studies.
Wildemuth Chapter 6
Special theories are theories (see this post for a definition of “theory”) that apply only to very specific phenomena or a very small range of circumstances.
General theories are theories that apply to a broad range of situations or phenomena and are usually very abstract.
Just a note: middle-range theories fall in between the two extremes.
References
Connaway, L. & Powell, R. (2010). Basic research methods for librarians. 5th ed. Santa
Barbara, CA: Libraries Unlimited.
Wildemuth, B. (2009). Applications of social research methods to questions in information and library science. Westport, CT: ABC-CLIO, Incorporated.
Tuesday, September 27, 2011
Literature Review Readings
The terms and concepts selected this week were taken from resources linked at the Wayne State University LIS 7996 Library Guide, available here.
Taylor - The Literature Review: A Few Tips On Conducting It
One very important principle to keep in mind during the literature review is that contrary opinions or arguments should be mentioned and properly addressed.
It is important to remember that a literature review is discursive prose, which means that it should flow and move seamlessly through topics (like “discourse”); it should not be choppy or abbreviated and it should not simply jump paragraph-by-paragraph from one reviewed source to the next.
D’Onofrio - Beginning a Study – Literature Reviews
When organizing a literature review, one way to do so is through thematic organization. This uses themes that have emerged from prior research and literature and the themes themselves are what are defined, explained, or discussed. Further, this organization allows the author of a literature review to explain the importance to the field of each theme in a meaningful way.
Webbing is a strategy for organizing information visually. Core concepts are written down in circles that represent “nodes”, and the interrelationships between those nodes are represented by lines that connect related nodes. This visual sorting of ideas helps to formulate structures for writing or presenting information and can also help to clarify concepts for the researcher.
UC Santa Cruz - Write a Literature Review
Strong consideration should be given to a written work’s provenance, or the combination of factors influencing the background and reliability of the work. These include the credentials of the author, evidentiary support for arguments made, and any other factors that might impact reliability.
A very important thing to remember when writing a literature review is that it does not contain new primary scholarship or research. Instead, its purpose is to give an overview of previous related work, to identify problems or gaps in previous research, to prevent unintended duplication of prior research, and to place the original research that should follow in a later section of a report in context.
References
D’Onofrio, A. (2003). Beginning a Study – Literature Reviews. Retrieved from: http://muse.widener.edu/~aad0002/510review.htm
Taylor, D. (n.d.). The Literature Review: A Few Tips On Conducting It. Retrieved from: http://www.writing.utoronto.ca/advice/specific-types-of-writing/literature-review
University of California, Santa Cruz (2011). Write a Literature Review. Retrieved from: http://library.ucsc.edu/help/howto/write-a-literature-review
Taylor - The Literature Review: A Few Tips On Conducting It
One very important principle to keep in mind during the literature review is that contrary opinions or arguments should be mentioned and properly addressed.
It is important to remember that a literature review is discursive prose, which means that it should flow and move seamlessly through topics (like “discourse”); it should not be choppy or abbreviated and it should not simply jump paragraph-by-paragraph from one reviewed source to the next.
D’Onofrio - Beginning a Study – Literature Reviews
When organizing a literature review, one way to do so is through thematic organization. This uses themes that have emerged from prior research and literature and the themes themselves are what are defined, explained, or discussed. Further, this organization allows the author of a literature review to explain the importance to the field of each theme in a meaningful way.
Webbing is a strategy for organizing information visually. Core concepts are written down in circles that represent “nodes”, and the interrelationships between those nodes are represented by lines that connect related nodes. This visual sorting of ideas helps to formulate structures for writing or presenting information and can also help to clarify concepts for the researcher.
UC Santa Cruz - Write a Literature Review
Strong consideration should be given to a written work’s provenance, or the combination of factors influencing the background and reliability of the work. These include the credentials of the author, evidentiary support for arguments made, and any other factors that might impact reliability.
A very important thing to remember when writing a literature review is that it does not contain new primary scholarship or research. Instead, its purpose is to give an overview of previous related work, to identify problems or gaps in previous research, to prevent unintended duplication of prior research, and to place the original research that should follow in a later section of a report in context.
References
D’Onofrio, A. (2003). Beginning a Study – Literature Reviews. Retrieved from: http://muse.widener.edu/~aad0002/510review.htm
Taylor, D. (n.d.). The Literature Review: A Few Tips On Conducting It. Retrieved from: http://www.writing.utoronto.ca/advice/specific-types-of-writing/literature-review
University of California, Santa Cruz (2011). Write a Literature Review. Retrieved from: http://library.ucsc.edu/help/howto/write-a-literature-review
Thursday, September 22, 2011
Developing the Study Readings
Wildemuth (Chapters 2,3,5)
Ch.2
A research question is a statement of what it is that the researcher wants to know about some situation or problem.
Symmetry of potential outcomes is a term meaning that regardless of whether one confirms or refutes a initial hypothesis, the research results will have utility.
Ch. 3
Evidence-based information practice is the implementation of the idea that professionals in the information arena should use the strongest evidence available as a basis for their decisions.
Practice-based questions: research inquiries that are closely linked with issues that arise from day-to-day work in a particular area, field, or practice.
Ch. 5.
Hypotheses, while a significant part of the scientific method, are important enough to restate. They are a statement of the expected relationship between two or more variables in a proposed study or experiment.
A null hypothesis is a hypothesis that states that there is no relationship between two or more variables or that two things that might be different are actually not so.
Williamson (Ch. 3)
Sub-questions are components of major problems or research questions. Each falls within the scope of their overarching or larger problem, but does not introduce any consideration outside of that scope. Use of sub-questions can make research into major problems or questions much more manageable.
Iterative process – an exploration or run-through of some process (in this case research into both literature and into unanswered questions) that provides greater success or understanding by returning to earlier stages with increased understanding of later stages. In other and more relevant terms, a researcher would engage in an iterative research process by beginning, for example, with a literature review and moving to early stages of exploring what questions might be asked or what hypotheses might be proposed; armed with the information garnered from this process, the researcher would return to the literature (stage 1) and repeat in order to build greater and more detailed understanding over time.
Patten (Topics 14, 15, 16)
Topic 14:
Strict replication of a study is that which attempts to repeat all important aspects of the original.
Modified replication introduces modifications such as changes to the research process, subject group, etc.
Topic 15:
A record contains metadata about a single file in an electronic database, and the information contained in a record is stored and displayed in fields, or standardized positions for data based on what that data describes or contains.
A thesaurus, in the context of electronic research, is a collection of descriptors used to identify digital resources. The thesaurus helps to identify the descriptors in a controlled vocabulary based on search terms or topic terms that the user might readily seek.
Topic 16:
Literature reviews should be conducted topic-by-topic, that is, relevant research cited in a literature review should be organized so that it groups research on particular topics together, and subordinately by importance, date, or some other organization scheme.
It is important to note (and cite) the results of research studies covered in the literature review—discussing methodology is not enough and is often even unnecessary. The results of a study are the confirmation or rejection of that study’s hypotheses.
Pyrczack (Appendix D)
When making factual statements or assertions, it is important to cite sources. The only factual statements that should not be cited are those that might appear outside of the literature review (for example, those assertions made describing the results of the study at hand). Even many of those should cite specific data sources.
Gaps in literature or in previous research are points of interest that have received little or no treatment by researchers. These provide excellent sources for future study or research problems.
Bibliography
Patten, M. (2000). Understanding research methods: Overview of the essentials. 2nd ed.
Glendale, CA: Pyrczak Publishing.
Pyrczak, F. (2008). Evaluating research in academic journals: A practical guide to realistic
evaluation. Glendale, CA: Pyrczak Publishing.
Wildemuth, B. (2009). Applications of social research methods to questions in information and library Science. ABC-CLIO, Incorporated.
Williamson, K. (2000). Research methods for students and professionals: Information
management and systems. Wagga Wagga, NSW.
Ch.2
A research question is a statement of what it is that the researcher wants to know about some situation or problem.
Symmetry of potential outcomes is a term meaning that regardless of whether one confirms or refutes a initial hypothesis, the research results will have utility.
Ch. 3
Evidence-based information practice is the implementation of the idea that professionals in the information arena should use the strongest evidence available as a basis for their decisions.
Practice-based questions: research inquiries that are closely linked with issues that arise from day-to-day work in a particular area, field, or practice.
Ch. 5.
Hypotheses, while a significant part of the scientific method, are important enough to restate. They are a statement of the expected relationship between two or more variables in a proposed study or experiment.
A null hypothesis is a hypothesis that states that there is no relationship between two or more variables or that two things that might be different are actually not so.
Williamson (Ch. 3)
Sub-questions are components of major problems or research questions. Each falls within the scope of their overarching or larger problem, but does not introduce any consideration outside of that scope. Use of sub-questions can make research into major problems or questions much more manageable.
Iterative process – an exploration or run-through of some process (in this case research into both literature and into unanswered questions) that provides greater success or understanding by returning to earlier stages with increased understanding of later stages. In other and more relevant terms, a researcher would engage in an iterative research process by beginning, for example, with a literature review and moving to early stages of exploring what questions might be asked or what hypotheses might be proposed; armed with the information garnered from this process, the researcher would return to the literature (stage 1) and repeat in order to build greater and more detailed understanding over time.
Patten (Topics 14, 15, 16)
Topic 14:
Strict replication of a study is that which attempts to repeat all important aspects of the original.
Modified replication introduces modifications such as changes to the research process, subject group, etc.
Topic 15:
A record contains metadata about a single file in an electronic database, and the information contained in a record is stored and displayed in fields, or standardized positions for data based on what that data describes or contains.
A thesaurus, in the context of electronic research, is a collection of descriptors used to identify digital resources. The thesaurus helps to identify the descriptors in a controlled vocabulary based on search terms or topic terms that the user might readily seek.
Topic 16:
Literature reviews should be conducted topic-by-topic, that is, relevant research cited in a literature review should be organized so that it groups research on particular topics together, and subordinately by importance, date, or some other organization scheme.
It is important to note (and cite) the results of research studies covered in the literature review—discussing methodology is not enough and is often even unnecessary. The results of a study are the confirmation or rejection of that study’s hypotheses.
Pyrczack (Appendix D)
When making factual statements or assertions, it is important to cite sources. The only factual statements that should not be cited are those that might appear outside of the literature review (for example, those assertions made describing the results of the study at hand). Even many of those should cite specific data sources.
Gaps in literature or in previous research are points of interest that have received little or no treatment by researchers. These provide excellent sources for future study or research problems.
Bibliography
Patten, M. (2000). Understanding research methods: Overview of the essentials. 2nd ed.
Glendale, CA: Pyrczak Publishing.
Pyrczak, F. (2008). Evaluating research in academic journals: A practical guide to realistic
evaluation. Glendale, CA: Pyrczak Publishing.
Wildemuth, B. (2009). Applications of social research methods to questions in information and library Science. ABC-CLIO, Incorporated.
Williamson, K. (2000). Research methods for students and professionals: Information
management and systems. Wagga Wagga, NSW.
Tuesday, September 20, 2011
Article Review #1
Brent Domann
September 20, 2011
Article Review # 1
This is a review of:
Dolinsky, A.L. (2010). The adequacy of the information that students utilize when choosing a college: an attribute importance and information sufficiency approach. College Student Journal, 44(3), 762-76.
Introduction
The purpose of this article and its underlying research is to examine several facets of the stage at which students evaluate prospective colleges by gathering information on them. The goal of the article is to analyze the results of a survey to determine whether or not colleges are meeting the information needs of prospective students with respect to important considerations the student group has and, additionally, relatively how much effort should be put into improving information access regarding several of these specific considerations.
This study and its analysis are quite relevant to the research topic that is forming for me now. As our economy tightens further and the number of credentialed graduates grows every year, many unsuccessful job applicants are finding that old assumptions about the value of education in employability are not what they once were. Thus it seems that a stronger emphasis on providing forthright, complete, and detailed post-graduation statistics might be necessary. Although I look to a more concentrated research subject group, the question, methodology, and analysis in this article offer an exceptional starting point for designing a research study.
Below are examinations of this article based on nine considerations given in Chapter 13 of Fred Pyrczak’s Evaluating research in academic journals: A practical guide to realistic Evaluation (2008).
Problem Statement:
This study and its report attempt to address whether college students are getting information about prospective colleges in a useful way. It looks to what information students find most relevant to deciding on what college to attend and also to how completely that information was provided to them while they were seeking it. Dolinksy, the researcher and author, attempts to rectify any discrepancies between information need and information access.
Dolinsky has definitely identified an important problem. As the need for higher education as a credential continues to grow, it becomes ever more important to assess what the information needs of prospective students are so that they can make informed choices when picking an institution.
Literature Review
Dolinsky's literature review is well done and reflective. He examines the existing literature for holes in the information landscape and designs his study to address some of the most glaring deficiencies he can identify. He walks through several previous studies spanning roughly 35 years of inquiry, and notes how each of these speaks to an aspect of his current research problem. Specifically, he notes that studies have been done regarding information sources for prospective college students, sources of influence on college choice, the chief considerations in choosing one college over another, and the impact of gender on the above. He further notes that none of these studies has focused on the sufficiency of such information and therefore sets forth the boundaries of his research problem.
Method
Dolinksy's method is to utilize a random sample of undergraduate students at a university and survey them regarding the importance of given college-related attributes in deciding to attend their particular college and, further, to inquire about the sufficiency of the information they were given while prospective students regarding those attributes. Both variables (attribute importance and information sufficiency for each attribute) are rated on a scale of 1-7 (a "Likert scale"). Information sufficiency results are then considered or analyzed both independently and in combination with attribute importance to aid in prioritizing information given to prospective students.
Dolinsky is very reflective regarding his analysis (as he is with his literature review). He analyzes his results in a concise, objective manner and is careful to neither overstate nor miss any of his results. His conclusions are carefully drawn and look both back to how his research corroborates earlier related studies and also forward to how it might be improved and how it might be put to practical use.
Caveats
There are no major methodological flaws that were unavoidable, though there are some minor issues that the report should discuss. The research was gathered by survey, and the report has inadequate caveats about the reliability of such research. Furthermore, as a matter of necessity for conducting the study the researcher was forced to categorize types or bundles of information as 'attributes' in order to create the research survey. There could be better recognition that such categories were at some level chosen or formed arbitrarily.
Conclusion
Dolinsky's report is very cohesive and follows a very clean and clear path from problem statement through a review of literature to the culminating study (namely its methodology, results, and an analysis of its results). The entire document works as a whole and is quite effective. It is clear about its intention to extend the boundaries of knowledge on its topic as it identifies shortcomings and missed opportunities in previous studies that it seeks to address. Perhaps more importantly, it indeed addresses these opportunities and provides several suggestions regarding how future researchers might contribute to the extension of knowledge in this area.
As such, Dolinsky's research is likely to inspire additional research in this area and in fact encourages it. Moreover, one of the chief stated goals of this study and report is to provide suggestions for practical application of their results. In other words, this research inspires further inquiry and also aids in decision making (particularly by institutions serving the subject group).
This report is certainly worthy of its publication in an academic journal. It is on the whole well-written, has a solid and inclusive literature review, is focused and concise, and provides understandable and useful data and analysis. Any peer would be proud to be attached to this research article.
Bibliography
Dolinsky, A.L. (2010). The adequacy of the information that students utilize when choosing a college: an attribute importance and information sufficiency approach. College Student Journal, 44(3), 762-76.
Pyrczak, F. (2008). Evaluating research in academic journals: A practical guide to realistic evaluation. Glendale, CA: Pyrczak Publishing.
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